عیسی مسیح

+“✝Christianity“✝+Miracles of Jesus+

The miracles of Jesus are proposed miraculous deeds attributed to Jesus in Christian and Islamic texts. The majority are faith healings, exorcisms, resurrections, and control over nature.[1][2]

In the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), Jesus refuses to give a miraculous sign to prove his authority.[clarification needed][3] In the Gospel of John, Jesus is said to have performed seven miraculous signs that characterize his ministry, from changing water into wine at the start of his ministry to raising Lazarus from the dead at the end.[4]

In The Miracles of Jesus, H. Van der Loos describes two main categories of miracles attributed to Jesus: those that affected people, e.g., the Blind Man of Bethsaida and are called "healings", and those that "controlled nature", e.g., Walking on Water. The three types of healings are cures where an ailment is cured, exorcisms where demons are cast away and the resurrection of the dead. Karl Barth said that, among these miracles, the Transfiguration of Jesus is unique in that the miracle happens to Jesus himself.[10]

According to Craig Blomberg, one characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the Gospel accounts is that he delivered benefits freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment for his healing miracles, unlike some high priests of his time who charged those who were healed.[11] In Matthew 10:8 he advised his disciples to heal the sick without payment and stated: "freely ye received, freely give."[11]

It is not always clear when two reported miracles refer to the same event. For example, in the healing the centurion's servant, the Gospels of Matthew[8:5–13] and Luke[7:1–10] narrate how Jesus healed the servant of a centurion in Capernaum at a distance. The Gospel of John[4:46–54] has a similar but slightly different account at Capernaum, and states that it was the son of a royal official who was cured at a distance.

The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures. The Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times, he employs material such as spit and mud. Generally they are referred to in the Synoptic Gospels but not in the Gospel of John.

The canonical Gospels tell a number of stories of Jesus healing blind people. The earliest is a story of the healing of a blind man in Bethsaida in the Gospel of Mark.[12]

Mark's Gospel also has an account of the healing of a man named Bartimaeus, done as Jesus is leaving Jericho.[13] The Gospel of Matthew[14] has a simpler account loosely based on this, with two unnamed blind men instead of one (this 'doubling' is a characteristic of Matthew's treatment of the Mark text) and a slightly different version of the story, taking place in Galilee, earlier in the narrative.[15] The Gospel of Luke tells the same story of Jesus healing an unnamed blind man, but moves the event in the narrative to when Jesus approaches Jericho.[16][17]

Mark's Gospel also has an account of the healing of a man named Bartimaeus, done as Jesus is leaving Jericho.[13] The Gospel of Matthew[14] has a simpler account loosely based on this, with two unnamed blind men instead of one (this 'doubling' is a characteristic of Matthew's treatment of the Mark text) and a slightly different version of the story, taking place in Galilee, earlier in the narrative.[15] The Gospel of Luke tells the same story of Jesus healing an unnamed blind man, but moves the event in the narrative to when Jesus approaches Jericho.[16][17]

A story in which Jesus cures a leper appears in Mark 1:40–45, Matthew 8:1–4 and Luke 5:12–16. Having cured the man, he instructs him to offer the requisite ritual sacrifices as prescribed by the Deuteronomic Code and Priestly Code, and not to tell anyone who had healed him; but the man disobeyed, increasing Jesus' fame, and thereafter Jesus withdrew to deserted places, but was followed there.

Healing the paralytic at Capernaum appears in Matthew 9:1–8, Mark 2:1–12 and Luke 5:17–26. The Synoptics state that a paralytic was brought to Jesus on a mat; Jesus told him to get up and walk, and the man did so. Jesus also told the man that his sins were forgiven, which irritated the Pharisees. Jesus is described as responding to the anger by asking whether it is easier to say that someone's sins are forgiven, or to tell the man to get up and walk. Mark and Luke state that Jesus was in a house at the time, and that the man had to be lowered through the roof by his friends due to the crowds blocking the door.

The cure of a bleeding woman miracle appears in Mark 5:21–43, Matthew 9:18–26 and Luke 8:40–56, along with the miracle of the Daughter of Jairus.[18] The Gospels state that while heading to Jairus' house Jesus was approached by a woman who had been bleeding for 12 years, and that she touched Jesus' cloak (fringes of his garment) and was instantly healed. Jesus turned about and, when the woman came forward, said "Daughter, your faith has healed you, go in peace".

Healing the mother of Peter's wife. The Synoptics[19] describe Jesus as healing the mother-in-law of Simon Peter when he visited Simon's house in Capernaum, around the time of Jesus recruiting Simon as an Apostle (Mark has it just after the calling of Simon, while Luke has it just before). The Synoptics imply that this led other people to seek out Jesus.

The healing of a man with dropsy is described in Luke 14:1–6. In this miracle, Jesus cured a man with dropsy at the house of a prominent Pharisee on the Sabbath. Jesus justified the cure by asking: "If one of you has a child or an ox that falls into a well on the Sabbath day, will you not immediately pull it out?"

////Jesus Christ////

According to Luke's Acts of the Apostles, the last thing Jesus did before he bodily ascended to heaven was to commission the disciples to 'witness' to his teachings. 'Disciple' meant 'student' and was derived from the various schools of philosophy in the ancient world. There was a master/teacher, and his students collected the teachings and passed them on. From this point forward in the text, however, the term 'disciple' is often replaced by 'apostle'. 'Apostle' (from the Greek 'apostellein' meaning "one sent out") was a herald. The Latin for 'apostle' was 'missio', from which we derive our word 'missionary'.

The apostles were sent out with good news (evangelion in Greek). This became the basis for the later Anglo-Saxon term for 'good news' - 'gospel'. In terms of narrative function, while designated disciples of Jesus initially, when the story takes them from Jerusalem to other areas of the Eastern Empire, they become apostles. They announce the good news that God's final intervention in history was imminent, the fundamental teaching of Jesus.

The gospels reported that Jesus called his disciples in the manner of God calling the traditional prophets of Israel for their missions. The first followers were fishermen from the region of the Sea of Galilee and were usually called in pairs. The traditional list of Jesus' 12 disciples includes:

Peter

Andrew (Peter's brother),

John (son of Zebedee)

James (son of Zebedee),

Philip,

Nathaniel,

Matthew (Levi),

Thomas,

James Alpheus

Judas Alpheus,

Simon (the Zealot),

Judas Iscariot.

However, the lists do not always match. Luke reports 70 disciples in pairs of twos and John has Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea as followers. Nevertheless, this group was consistently referred to as 'the Twelve', despite the numbers and different names. The number symbolized the twelve restored tribes of Israel. The prophets had proclaimed that God's intervention would restore the tribes of Israel (now scattered among the nations) and bring them back to the land.

Mark, Matthew, and Luke all reported that during the arrest, the trials, and the crucifixion, all the disciples abandoned Jesus. John alone claimed that "the beloved disciple" stayed with Jesus at the foot of the cross. Later Christians identified "the beloved disciple" as John. The gospels and Acts report that during the post-resurrection appearances by Jesus the disciples were forgiven for their lack of understanding and abandonment. We have evidence that within 20 years of the death of Jesus, a group that included James, Peter, John, & others (as reported in Galatians 2 and Acts 15) was in place in Jerusalem.

In both Mark and Matthew, the angel in the empty tomb told the women that Jesus would meet them in the Galilee. Luke and John have resurrection appearances in and around Jerusalem. The end of Matthew contains what is now deemed the Great Commission:

Another source for the motive of the disciples is found in Acts 2. Luke related that during the festival of Pentecost, the spirit of God appeared as fire to the disciples. The disciples were speaking in their own dialect of Aramaic, but Jews from all over the known world heard them in their own tongue. It was the power of this spirit that enabled the disciples to be successful in their preaching, as well as the ability to work miracles.

Our sources for reconstructions of the activity of the missionaries are found in Paul's letters (written c. 50s and 60s CE), the Acts of the Apostles (written c. 95 CE), and some of the other New Testament letters of the 1st century CE. Beyond the Christian writings, we do not have contemporary literature from other Jews or non-Christians in this period.

The narrative of Acts follows the opening parameters of the order: the apostles preach in Jerusalem, all Judea (in the cities of Joppa and Haifa), Samaria, and the ends of the earth. Acts relates the travels of Paul in Asia Province (Turkey), Syria, and Greece. The book ends with Paul in Rome, not quite "the ends of the earth" but the ultimate center of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, if any of the original disciples wrote anything, it has not survived. The consensus understands that fishermen from the Galilee most likely were not educated in Greek reading and writing. Luke provides many detailed speeches, particularly by Peter. However, the speeches in Acts are the product of the author. On the other hand, some scholars claim that the Lukan speeches reflect what would have been typical speeches of the apostles.

The text plays upon the name Peter, petra meaning 'rock' in Greek). Having the power of "the keys of the kingdom of heaven" meant that Peter is the ultimate source of who gets into heaven. The Catholic Church utilizes this passage to claim direct spiritual descent from Peter to the Pope. The symbol of crossed-keys on the papal crown appears in sculptures throughout Vatican City.

To reconstruct the earliest Christian communities, the scholarly consensus agrees that this was a Jewish message and so the followers of Jesus took his teachings to the synagogues first. For centuries Jews had established communities throughout the Roman Empire and synagogues were at the center of their religious and community life. Non-Jews, also known as Gentiles, however, showed a higher rate of interest than the Jews.

The Gentile interest came from the group that Luke labeled God-fearers, non-Jews who were attracted to Jewish values, charity, ethics, and stories. Synagogues were not sacred spaces (that was only found in the Temple complex in Jerusalem) and so there was no bar to their participation. This Gentile interest surprised many and debate began about how to include them. Those who believed that these people should fully convert to Judaism first (with circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath rules), are labeled Jewish-Christians by scholars. Those who accepted Gentiles as Gentiles are labeled Gentile-Christians.

Galatians 2 and Acts 15 describe a meeting that was held in Jerusalem to decide the issue. The decision was taken that they could join the assemblies of Christ-followers, but only if they followed Jewish incest laws, avoided meat with blood in it, and ceased the worship of all the other gods (idolatry). This became known as the first Apostolic Council.

The one apostle we know the most about was Paul, a Pharisee who had opposed this new group. He had a vision from Jesus (in heaven), who told him to be “the apostle to the Gentiles.” Paul the Apostle had never met Jesus when he was on earth, but he claimed that this vision authorized him to have the same standing as the original disciples (as an apostle). Paul traveled to many cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, where he established communities of believers.

For Paul, Gentiles come in as Gentiles. The prophets of Israel had said that in the final days of God's restoration some Gentiles would turn and worship the God of Israel. This turning, he claimed, demonstrated their repentance in turning from the great sin of idolatry. Paul's letters indicate that he was an educated Jew, not only well-versed in the scriptures, but well-versed in the concepts of higher learning in the Roman Empire through the schools of philosophy. He combined both in his arguments. Because of the absence of any writings of the original disciples, we cannot determine if they taught using the same methods and arguments as Paul.

While a decision had been taken in Jerusalem concerning the Gentiles, apparently the debate continued for several decades. It is one of the main topics in Paul's letters, where he often accuses false apostles of attempting to undo what he had preached. He does not name these false apostles and scholars assume that this group represented those who formed the first community in Jerusalem: Peter, James, and John (Jewish-Christians). By Paul's own admission, there was no love lost between him and this group. He sarcastically referred to them as the "so-called pillars" of the community (Galatians 2). On the question of Gentile inclusion, it remains unknown exactly what each of the original apostles taught in their travels. We know that Gentiles began to outnumber Jews by the end of the 1st century CE, and without written evidence, we have to assume that the original disciples accommodated their inclusion.

Paul's letters also reveal the debates and tensions in the first communities, both internal and external. Jews in the cities of the Empire had long ago worked out an accommodation with their neighbors. The new teaching of no idolatry had the potential to upend relationships vis-à-vis Rome, and it led to the official persecution of Christians by the end of the 1st century CE. Some of Paul's letters are written from prison, and Acts related various times that Paul was imprisoned for civil disturbances. In Acts, however, a sympathetic Roman magistrate always releases Paul.

The gospels all have Jesus predicting that his followers would suffer persecution from both the Jews as well as the governing authorities. In the Acts of the Apostles, we have stories of their constant harassment and arrest. Luke claimed that Peter and John were arrested several times by the Sanhedrin (the Jewish city council) and were imprisoned. This was followed by their miraculous escapes.

Luke also related the story that Herod Agrippa I (r. 41-44 CE as king of the Jews) decapitated James, the brother of John. He was later struck by a lightning bolt from God for his hubris of thinking himself divine. This story of Herod Agrippa is also found in the writings of Josephus, a 1st-century CE Jewish historian. However, Josephus does not mention the death of any Christians. Josephus also related the death of James, Jesus' brother by the Sanhedrin (62 CE), a story which is absent in the Acts of the Apostles.

Some letters eventually became canonized in the New Testament and claim to be written by the first disciples, 1 and 2 Peter and 1, 2, and 3 John. The Petrine letters are introduced by Peter the Apostle and are addressed to communities in Asia Province. The letters remonstrate against false prophets and encourage perseverance in the light of persecution in that area. Of note is the admonition to "honor the Emperor" and not make waves (1 Peter 2:17).

Many scholars challenge both the authorship and date of the Petrine letters. The writer utilizes an advanced level of rhetoric and philosophy in his arguments which cannot be credited to a Galilean fisherman. Equally problematic is the fact that official persecution of Christians by Rome most likely began under Roman emperor Domitian (r. 83-95 CE) and not during the lifetime of Peter.

There are three letters assigned to John, but authorship remains a topic of debate. The tradition claims that they were written in Ephesus toward the end of the 1st century CE by John the Elder. This individual was understood to be the "beloved disciple" of the fourth gospel (and the author of that text), John, the brother of James.

In the 2nd century CE, literature began to appear that filled in details of the activity of the apostles. Many of these are titled acts of the apostles, meaning deeds. They narrated their travels, their teaching, their miracles, their sufferings, and eventual deaths. The acts follow the style and structure of what is known as Greek Romance Literature. These novels were popular and usually related stories of lovers who undergo separation and adventures but are reconciled in the end.

One of the most elaborate is The Acts of Peter. The story follows his travels throughout the Roman Empire and his last years in Rome. It provides more details of Nero's (r. 54-68 CE) alleged persecution of Christians after the fire in Rome (64 CE), a story that was only first attested by Tacitus c. 110-115 CE). The Christians of Rome encouraged Peter to flee and save his life because of his importance as a witness. He left Rome along the Appian Way where he saw a vision of Jesus coming toward him. He asked, "Quo vadis, domine?" ("Where are you going, Lord?") and Jesus told him that he was on his way to Rome to die again. Peter then knew what he had to do, as an atonement for his prior denial of Jesus. He turned around, was arrested, and died in the amphitheater that Nero used that night to execute Christians. This is the source of the story that he asked his executioners to crucify him upside down, as he was not worthy to die in the same manner. Thus, Renaissance art depicts the death of Peter this way. The site of Peter's vision is marked along the Appian Way as a pilgrimage stop.

((Jesus Christ))

Therefore, utilizing biblical verification, early church leaders arduously strived to compose and communicate the supernatural relationship of Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit, which they eventually termed, “The Trinity” - the Latin word for “Three-ness.” Specifically, the Church Fathers concluded that God exists as a single deity with three separate but permanently connected persons in his ontology. So, though one God, he is also differentiated within himself to accomplish his divine will in Heaven, the universe, and on earth. He is not three separated entities or beings; nor is he a single person revealing himself in three forms (which the heresy, Modalism, contends). Paradoxically, God's persons are simultaneous and not consecutive, and, via “Perichoresis,” they “dance around each other,” focusing on specific activities although still enveloping each other and each other's work. Though not specifically referenced in the Bible by word, the reality of the Trinity can be observed in both the Hebrew and Greek scriptures, although it is more noticeable in the New Testament writers' assertions and explanations.

To preserve the original message and meaning of Christianity, several Christian communities created creeds (a formal statement of religious belief) to help define and defend Christian doctrine and characteristics. Many consider Romans 10:8-9 to be the first Christian creed - “The word of faith we are proclaiming: That if you confess with your mouth, 'Jesus is Lord,' and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved.”

Christian tradition suggests that, later on, the Jesus' Disciples wrote the Apostles Creed (c. 150 CE) after Jesus' crucifixion, although modern scholarship puts the date to be post 2nd century CE. In this ancient creed, it presents God as the creator, discusses Jesus' birth, death, resurrection, and ascension into Heaven. It also references the Holy Spirit and his communication with the World (although it omits an official discussion of the Trinity), and ends with an explanation of the Church, its saints, and the afterlife.

Under the supervision of Emperor Constantine I, the Nicene Creed (325 CE) was composed by an ecumenical council, which was and is accepted as authoritative by most Christian groups, but not by the Eastern Orthodox Church (at least, the second version in 381 CE is rejected for adding in the Filioque Clause—"And the Son"). It describes the pre-existence of Jesus Christ, his role in the future judgment of humanity, how Jesus is "homoousis" - of one substance with God, how/why the Holy Spirit is to be worshipped as part of the holy family, discusses the requirement of baptism, and minimizes the earthly ministry of Jesus Christ, interestingly.

Although there are others, the Athanasian Creed (328 CE) is important as it deals mainly with the Trinity, and pushes back against the heresies of the day: Arianism, Docetism, Modalism, and Monophytism. It expands upon the Nicene Creed and promotes a more exclusive understanding of salvation and eternal rejection for non-believers.

The followers of Jesus Christ would finally see a reprieve from their centuries-long struggles to worship Jesus Christ as their king and Lord in Roman society under Emperor Flavius Valerius Constantinus, also known as Constantine I the Great (c. 280-337 CE). Contrary to his predecessors, and perhaps because of the havoc and weakening that ensued after Diocletian's abdication of the Imperial throne in 305 CE, Constantine saw value (and possibly truth) in the Christian way and, once in power, took steps to remove all former legal restrictions on Christianity. Specifically, in the Edict of Milan, composed in 313 CE, Constantine offered citizens of the Empire new freedoms and protections from centuries-old bigoted edicts. No doubt, 4th-century CE Christians felt a peace like none before as they read (or heard) in the Edict of Milan,

Although Constantine's “conversion” to Christianity is controversial (was it for personal or political reasons?), the future sole emperor later spoke of a dream that he had the night before his pivotal battle with Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge (312 CE) wherein God told him to have the Christian “Chi-Rho” monogram painted on his soldiers' shields to ensure success. Considering that Maxentius' forces were double that of Constantine's, Constantine's chances were slim, at best. Whether due to desperation or blind faith, he purportedly submitted to the instructions in his dream (although early reports of the battle omit the divine vision telling him, "In hoc signo vinces" - "In this sign conquer"), carried a new banner of allegiance into battle, and won the day.

His victory achieved, and with the drowning of Maxentius earlier in battle, Constantine went on to become sole emperor of an undivided empire in 324 CE. An apt and inspirational administrator, he set forth to reform the great Roman Empire that had been dwindling down for decades, with God at his back. More so, he became a patron of Christianity and its church, appointing Christians to high political office and giving them the same rights as other Pagan political officers, paving the way for Christianity to lead society - not be dragged down or crushed by it.

By the 5th century CE, Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire, leading to a dramatic change in how the faith played out in greater society. This caused a shift in Christianity from private to public worship; from a distinctly Jewish character to one more aligned with the Gentiles; from an individual matter to more of a community affair; from a seeker-driven faith to an exclusively chosen body of believers; from a looser, more informal structure to that of distinct strata of operation and authority; and from gender empowering to more specific gender-specific limitations. Additionally, Christian leaders had to figure out how Christianity integrated with Roman law and government, dealt with barbarian peoples, and still maintained the essence of Jesus' teachings and missions for his followers.

The next two centuries of Christianity would see the development of the episcopacy and the rise of a religious aristocracy - the clergy and laity, the papacy, the priesthood of some, not all, believers. Furthermore, where previously riches were a sign of greed and exploitation, once endorsed and involved with the emperor, now riches were seen in a more favorable light. An even greater juxtaposition was the shift from Christian pacifism to militarianism (also no doubt due to the syncretization of Christianity into secular society). Theologically, there was a move away from Millennialism and the Second Coming of Christ to a more practical, earthly understanding of the kingdom of God; the enforcement of clerical abstinence and the condemnation of simony; the addition of Purgatory to key medieval church dogma; the establishment of the Sacraments, which institutionally demonstrated the outward signs of God's inward grace in the lives of his followers; and the evolution of Christian monasticism throughout Europe and Africa.

Some might consider such institutionalism contrary to the original Jesus movement; however, it is best to remember that, according to Christian scripture, Jesus was confirmed by Jewish scripture to be the prophesized Messiah, he taught regularly and enthusiastically in the Temple for years, he affirmed and participated in the numerous Jewish festivals and customs required of Judaism, and he became the perfect priest and sacrifice before God on humanity's behalf. Moreover, Jesus also established his Twelve Disciples to be official ambassadors of the Kingdom of God, to act as heralds of the new covenant between God and humanity. He also promised them that at the Final Judgment, they would be the ones to judge the tribes of Israel.

Yet, Jesus was quite adroit at making the best of all situations, whether personal or public, private or institutional, turning every situation into an opportunity to love God with all his heart, soul, and mind; and to love his neighbor as himself. He also called upon his believers to follow his loving model in reaching the world for God. As the Apostle Paul writes in Galatians, which includes one of the oldest self-definitions of Christianity, “Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ, who gave himself for our sins so that he might rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father, to whom be the glory forever more. Amen" (Galatians 1:3-5, NASB).

In the 20-plus centuries since the ministry of Jesus, many Christians have willingly and sacrificially tried to reach the world for God, to continue the great commandment of Jesus Christ in their own complicated lives, changing cultures, and imperfect ways - sometimes for better, sometimes for worse. This was true in the 1st century, CE, and, century after century, it is still a reality for the Christian movement, 2,000 years later.

/..Jesus Christ../

Such Christian activism did not go unnoticed, especially by the provincial leaders who disliked any civil unrest that interfered with the Pax Romana and monetary gain. With the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE and Diaspora (the forced dispersion of the Jews from Israel) that followed, after the 1st century CE, Christian castigation mostly came from Roman leadership who feared little, if any, reprisal or revenge from the Christians who were known for their passivity and peacefulness (and who had few political friends in the Senate). Thus, members of the Early Christian movement often became political targets and scapegoats for the social ills and political tensions of specific rulers and turbulent periods during the first three centuries CE; however, this persecution was sporadic and rarely empire-wide, but it was devastating, nonetheless.

The persecution of the Christians did not end with the deaths of the Disciples and the Apostles; their pupils and successors, the Church Fathers (ancient theologians, church leaders, and defenders of orthodox Christianity) also endured Roman hostility and maltreatment for their beliefs, as did other peripheral Christian men, women, and children (of all ages) who called themselves, “Christian.” The three main periods of persecution occurred from 64-95 CE (Emperor Nero to Emperor Domitian), 112-250 CE (Emperor Trajan to Emperor Decius), and 250-311 CE (Emperor Valerian to Diocletian).

Generally, people of all religious persuasions were tolerated within the Roman Empire; after all, polytheism was the norm for most Mediterranean societies at that time. Yet, for the Empire to operate, efficiently and profitably, social order had to be maintained at all costs. Submission to the Emperor was not an option, but Christians could not and would not say, “Lord, Lord,” to the enthroned emperor or make a divine offering in their deified honor. This caused frequent friction with Roman authorities, and who started a conflict was less important to the Roman governors than maintaining peace and acquiescence; therefore, the troublesome elements were eliminated as a warning to others about challenging the absolute rule of Rome.

Nero set up as culprits and punished with the utmost refinement of cruelty a class hated for their abominations, who are commonly called Christians. Nero's scapegoats (the Christians) were the perfect choice because it temporarily relieved pressure of the various rumors going around Rome. Christus, from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius. Checked for a moment, this pernicious superstition again broke out, not only in Judea, the source of the evil, but even in Rome...

Being so counter-cultural and morally provocative, many Christians found themselves to be entertainment (or a warning to all who would also create conflict or rebellion in Roman society) in the Roman Circus or at other various gladiatorial arenas in the Empire, wherein they could be crucified, burned alive, thrown to lions or other wild beasts without weapons of defense, beheaded, impaled on pikes or spears, hanged, drawn and quartered, or killed by gladiators (although such events were not very spectacular considering the peaceful non-resistance of the early Christians). How many Christians were killed during these Great Persecutions is unknown; however, many scholars believed it numbered in the thousands. Some martyrs (one who dies for the faith) were leaders in the still–growing church, but most others were mere grassroots followers in the Jesus movement.

Although not every Roman emperor was merciless in their treatment of Christians, several rulers stand out because of their severity or cruelty. Emperor Nero (r. 54-68 CE) was emotionally unstable, involved in several conspiracies, a poor administrator, and used the Christians as a distraction of his imperial failings and frustrations. Emperor Domitian (r. 81-96 CE) was said to be “a thoroughly nasty person, rarely polite, insolent, arrogant, and cruel.” A black-and-white thinker, he introduced anti-Jewish and anti-Christian laws, and demanded Christians worship him as god (people were to refer to him as dominus et deus - —'master and god'). Emperor Decius (r. 249-251 CE) also issued royal edicts to suppress Christianity, demanding that all Christian bishops offer sacrifices to him.

Despite the famous cruelty of Nero, perhaps the greatest persecutions of all happened during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE). A zealot for Paganism, he called himself, “the Vicar of Jupiter,” and believed that the eclipsing of Roman power was more due to Christianity than bad governorship. Thus, he issued the strongest anti-Christian edicts of all the emperors, commanding that all Christian churches were to be burned, all Christians were to be deprived of political office, all Christian scriptures and bibles were to be burned, and all private and public worship of Jesus was to cease. Despite his austere measures, though, the Christian movement grew stronger.

One of the most famous Christian martyrs was Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna (Turkey), who was executed during or around the reign of Marcus Auerlius (r. 161-180 CE). One of the Apostle John's disciples - the others being Papias of Hierapolis (c. 70-163 CE), Ignatius of Antioch (ca. 35 CE – 108 CE), and Irenaeus of Lyons (early 2nd century – 202 CE) - Polycarp was a guardian of the faith and unyielding to the end of his days. In the Martyrdom of Polycarp, the (unknown) author writes,

Martyrdom was not limited to officials in the Christian movement or believers only from the male gender, either. In 203 CE, five Carthaginians defied the Imperial orders of Septimus Severus (145 -211 CE) prohibiting conversion to Christianity and were subsequently arrested, including Vibia Perpetua, a twenty-two-year-old Roman noblewoman and her servant/handmaiden, Felicitas. A young mother, Perpetua was allowed to breastfeed her young child in prison, and Felicitas was eight months pregnant, but both women still refused to recant their faith (despite the objections and pleading of Perpetua's father). During their execution, they were first mauled by a mad cow, finally being dispatched by sword in the arena. The three other male slaves - Revocatus, Saturnius, and Secundulus - were whipped and then thrown into the arena to defend themselves against a wild boar, a bear, and a leopard.

Even with the aforementioned challenges to the Christian movement, from its earliest days through the centuries of development, Christianity's focus stayed on its founder - Jesus Christ of Nazareth. The Apostolic and Church Fathers labored to preserve the authentic message of Jesus and his Disciples, rejecting works and ideas that were more than just unsubstantiated myth, personal biases, or incongruent teachings concerning theology on God and Jesus. Moreover, a majority rule or belief had to be accepted by the ecumenical councils from all areas of the Roman Empire - Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, Carthage, etc.; before there was commitment, there had to be careful Christian consensus.

In determining the standard or canon for Christian scripture, the early Christian leaders used a four-part “rubric” and international community affirmation to approve or reject books and letters for biblical inclusion. First, the writings had to be Catholic, used universally all over the Mediterranean religion; second, the writings had to be Orthodox, or included correct truths of Jesus and his message; third, the writings had to be Apostolic, or written in the time of Jesus by his Disciples/Apostles; finally, the writings had to be Traditional, or used often and regularly by Christian churches. If a book or letter could place this “COAT” upon its back, it was worthy of inclusion in the biblical canon.

Moreover, because of their historical closeness to Jesus and his direct training of their authors, the Gospel accounts and letters (the Epistles) of the Disciples/Apostles were considered to be superior, authoritative sources in discerning authentic Christian doctrine. Contrary to some who claim these early Christian church fathers made their choices out of personal benefit, it is interesting to note that none of the Apostolic Fathers' own writings (The Didache, 1 & 2 Clement, the Epistles of Ignatius, the Epistle of Polycarp, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, etc.) made it into the biblical canon despite having great cultural value and influence.

Thus, despite regional differences and emphases, despite strong personalities and community dominance, the major tenets of Christianity were established for the church, using Scripture as the main guide, and only confirmed through ecumenical councils from all over the Mediterranean region. This was done both for unity within the Christian body, but also to protect against heretical ideas seeping into Christianity from various false teachers and movements (many of which are still held today by some people).

For instance, the Gnostics promoted a secret way to the divine that vilified the flesh and contradicted the theology of the Hebrew scriptures with its own pantheon of deities, demons, and spiritual beings. Docetism promoted the idea that Jesus only appeared to die on the Cross, as he was only spirit and never truly incarnated. Arianism contended that Jesus was a created being, not equal with God the Father. Nestorianism held that Jesus existed as two separate people, and that only the human Jesus suffered and died on the Cross. Pelagianism suggested the idea that Adam's original sin did not carry on through him to all humanity, and that all human beings can effect their own salvation through the will and wise choices. All of these movements contradicted, in some way, scriptural evidence in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible.